Depending on the position of stress in a rhymed word, several types of rhyme are distinguished:
- masculine rhyme, where the stress is on the last syllable of the rhymed verse. For example, this is exactly the type used in M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Death”:
The chain of young life is broken,
The journey is over, the hour has struck, it’s time to go home,
It's time to go where there is no future,
No past, no eternity, no years. - female rhyme, where it falls on the penultimate. For example, this is exactly the type used in an excerpt from the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Groom": "
Everywhere there is silver and gold,
Everything is light and rich." - dactylic rhyme, in which the stress is on the third syllable from the end of the line. This is how lines 1 and 3 of S. A. Yesenin’s poem “Rus” rhyme, and lines 2 and 4 are another example of masculine rhyming:
The village drowned in potholes,
The huts of the forest were obscured,
Only visible on the bumps and depressions,
How blue the skies are all around. - hyperdactylic rhyme, in which the stress falls on the fourth syllable or further, is used much less frequently than others. An example is the line by V. Ya. Bryusov:
Rays stretch from the moon,
They touch the heart with needles...
Rhymes also differ in the accuracy of consonances and methods of their creation:
- rich rhymes in which the supporting consonant sound coincides. An example is the lines from A. S. Pushkin’s poem “To Chaadaev”:
Love, hope, quiet glory
Deception did not last long for us,
The youthful fun has disappeared
Like a dream, like morning fog. - poor rhymes, where the overstressed sounds and the stressed vowel partially coincide.
Also in versification there is a group of imprecise rhymes that are a conscious artistic device:
- assonant rhymes in which the stressed vowel coincides, but the consonants do not coincide.
- dissonant (countersonant) rhymes, where, on the contrary, the stressed vowels do not coincide:
Was
Socialism -
enthusiastic word!
With a flag
With a song
stood on the left
And myself
On the heads
glory was descending
- a truncated rhyme in which there is an extra consonant sound in one of the rhyming words.
- iotated rhyme, which is one of the most common examples of truncated rhyme; so in it, as the name suggests, the sound “th” becomes an additional consonant sound. This type of rhyme is used in this poem by A. S. Pushkin in lines 1 and 3:
The clouds are rushing, the clouds are swirling;
Invisible moon
The flying snow illuminates;
The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy... - compound rhyme, where the rhyming pair consists of three or more words, as in lines 2 and 4 of N. S. Gumilyov:
Will you take me in your arms
And you, I will hug you,
I love you, prince of fire,
I want and wait for a kiss. - banal rhymes, for example: love - blood, roses - tears, joy - youth. A. S. Pushkin joked about the predictability of such rhymes, which are so often found among different authors, in “Eugene Onegin”:
And now the frost is crackling
And they shine silver among the fields...
The reader is already waiting for the “rose” rhyme,
Methods of rhyming
Previously, in a school literature course, the basic methods of rhyming were necessarily studied in order to give knowledge about the variety of positions in a stanza of rhyming pairs (or more) of words, which should be a help to anyone who writes poetry at least once in their life. But everything is forgotten, and the majority of authors are somehow in no hurry to diversify their stanzas.
Adjacent- rhyme of adjacent verses: the first with the second, the third with the fourth ( aabb) (the same letters indicate the endings of verses that rhyme with each other).
This is the most common and obvious rhyming system. This method can be used even by children in kindergarten and has an advantage in the selection of rhymes (the associative pair appears in the mind immediately, it is not clogged with intermediate lines). Such stanzas have greater dynamics and a faster reading pace.
The scarlet light of dawn is woven on the lake, and wood grouse are crying in the forest with ringing sounds. An oriole is crying somewhere, burying itself in a hollow. Only I don’t cry - my soul is light.
The next method - cross rhyme - also appealed to a large number of the writing public.
Cross- rhyme of the first verse with the third, the second with the fourth ( abab)
Although the scheme of such a rhyme seems to be a little more complicated, it is more flexible rhythmically and allows you to better convey the necessary mood. Yes, and such poems are easier to learn - the first pair of lines, as it were, pulls out of memory the second pair that rhymes with it (while with the previous method everything breaks up into separate couplets).
I love the thunderstorm at the beginning of May, when the first thunder of spring, as if frolicking and playing, rumbles in the blue sky.
The third method - ring (in other sources - girded, enveloping) - already has less representation in the total mass of poems.
Ring(girdled, enveloping) - the first verse - with the fourth, and the second - with the third.( Abba)
This scheme can be somewhat more difficult for beginners (the first line is, as it were, erased by the subsequent pair of rhyming lines).
Standing above the Neva, I looked at how the golden dome glowed like Isaac the giant in the darkness of the frosty fog.
And finally, woven rhyme has many patterns. This is the general name for complex types of rhyme, for example: abwbw, abbbbba and etc.
Far from the sun and nature, Far from light and art, Far from life and love Your youth will flash by, Your living feelings will die, Your dreams will dispel.
In conclusion, it is useful to note that one should not always adhere so rigidly, strictly and dogmatically to certain canonical forms and templates, because, as in any form of art, there is always a place for the original in poetry. But, nevertheless, before rushing into the unbridled inventing of something new and not entirely known, it always does not hurt to make sure that you are still familiar with the basic canons.
Sound repetitions are the main element of the phonics of a verse, the essence of which is the repetition within a verse and in neighboring verses of a group of identical or similar sounds. The main function of the verse is to ensure the phonetic expressiveness of the verse. It is noteworthy that in the Russian system of versification, sound repetitions are not a canonized device, as, for example, in Finnish, Estonian, Yakut and some other languages.The place in the verse is distinguished by the ring, when the sounds are repeated at the end and beginning of the verse ("The flying ridge of clouds is thinning", A. S. Pushkin; symbol AB... AB), anaphora, epiphora, junction (... AB - AB ...), sound repetitions are also distinguished: decomposed (AB... A... B...) and summative (A... B... AB), metathetical (AB... BA), accurate and inaccurate , double and triple. Sound repetitions include alliteration, assonance, and rhyme.
Alliteration- repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a poem, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification).
This implies a higher frequency of these sounds in comparison with the Central Russian one in a certain segment of the text or throughout its entire length. It is not customary to talk about alliteration in cases where sound repetition is a consequence of repetition of morphemes. A verbal type of alliteration is a tautogram. (repetition of consonants).
In some sources, a type of assonance is considered to be assonant rhyme, in which only vowels are consonant, but not consonants. It was as a type of rhyme that assonance was defined, in particular, by the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, which noted at the end of the 19th century that
Spanish and Portuguese poets especially often resort to assonance. German - only in translations and imitations of these poets, and only a few in original works, for example Schlegel in his “Alarcos”. In the folk poetry of the Slavs, since the advent of rhyme, assonance is often found, but usually next to the consonance of consonants in two adjacent lines of verse, thus a complete, more or less developed rhyme, that is, consonance of vowels and consonants.
Rhyme and its varieties
Rhyme is the repetition of more or less similar combinations of sounds that connect the endings of two or more lines or symmetrically located parts of poetic lines. In Russian classical versification, the main feature of rhyme is the coincidence of stressed vowels. Rhyme marks the end of a verse (clause) with a sound repetition, emphasizing the pause between lines, and thereby the rhythm of the verse.
Depending on the location of stress in rhyming words, rhyme can be: masculine, feminine, dactylic, hyperdactylic, exact and inaccurate.
Masculine rhyme
Masculine - rhyme with stress on the last syllable in the line.
Both the sea and the storm rocked our canoe;
I, sleepy, was given over to all the whims of the waves.
There were two infinities in me,
And they played with me willfully.
Feminine rhyme
Feminine - with emphasis on the penultimate syllable in the line.
Quiet night, late summer,
How the stars glow in the sky,
As if under their gloomy light
The dormant fields are ripening.
Dactylic rhyme
Dactylic - with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line, which repeats the pattern of dactyl - -_ _ (stressed, unstressed, unstressed), which, in fact, is the name of this rhyme.
A girl in a field with a willow pipe,
Why did you hurt the spring twig?
She cries at her lips like a morning oriole,
cries more and more bitterly and more and more inconsolably.
Hyperdactylic rhyme
Hyperdactylic - with stress on the fourth and subsequent syllables from the end of the line. This rhyme is very rare in practice. It appeared in works of oral folklore, where size as such is not always visible. The fourth syllable from the end of the verse is not a joke! Well, an example of such a rhyme goes like this:
The goblin scratches his beard,
He's gloomily trimming a stick.
Depending on the coincidence of sounds, accurate and inaccurate rhymes are distinguished.
Rhyme accurate and inaccurate
Rhyme - repetition of more or less similar combinations of sounds at the ends of poetic lines or symmetrically located parts of poetic lines; In Russian classical versification, the main feature of rhyme is the coincidence of stressed vowels.
(O.S. Akhmanova, Dictionary of Linguistic Terms, 1969)
Why was Dunno wrong when he claimed that “stick - herring” is also a rhyme? Because he did not know that in fact it is not sounds that rhyme, but phonemes (sound is a particular realization of a phoneme) (R. Yakobson), which have a number of distinctive features. And the coincidence of some of these features is enough to make rhyming sound possible. The fewer coinciding features of a phoneme, the more distant and “worse” the consonance.
Consonant phonemes differ:
1) by place of education
2) by method of education
4) by hardness and softness
5) by deafness and voicedness
These signs are obviously unequal. Thus, the phoneme P coincides with the phoneme B in all respects, except for deafness-voicedness (P - voiceless, B - voiced). This difference creates an “almost” exact rhyme: trenches - individuals. Phonemes P and T differ in the place of formation (labial and anterior lingual). OkoPe - osoTe - is also perceived as a rhyming sound, although more distant.
The first three features create phoneme differences that are more significant than the last two. We can designate the difference between phonemes according to the first three characteristics as two conventional units (cu); for the last two - as one. Phonemes that differ by 1-2 units are consonant. Differences of 3 or more units do not retain consonance to our ears. For example: P and G differ by three units. (place of formation - 2, voiceless-voiced - 1). And trenches - legs can hardly be considered a rhyme in our time. Even smaller are trenches - roses, where P and W differ by 4 cu. (place of education, method of education).
So, let's mark the rows of consonant consonants. These are, first of all, pairs of hard and soft: T - T", K - K", S - S", etc., but such substitutions are resorted to quite rarely, for example, of the three pairs of rhymes, “otkoS”e - roSy ", "slopes - dew" and "slopes - roses" the second and third options are more preferable.
Substitution of voiceless-voiced voices is perhaps the most common: P-B, T-D, K-G, S-Z, Sh-Zh, F-V (for God - deep, bends - linPakh, dragonflies - braids, people - raid ).
The stops (mode of formation) P-T-K (voiceless) and B-D-G (voiced) respond well to each other. The corresponding two rows of fricatives are F-S-SH-H (voiceless) and V-Z-ZH (voiced). X has no voiced counterpart, but goes well and often with K. B-V and B-M are equivalent. M-N-L-R in various combinations are very productive. Soft versions of the latter are often combined with J and B (Russian[rossiJi] - blue - strength - beautiful).
So, concluding our conversation about exact and imprecise rhyme, we repeat that exact rhyme is when the vowels and consonants included in the consonant endings of the verses basically coincide. The accuracy of the rhyme is also increased by the consonance of the consonant sounds immediately preceding the last stressed vowel in rhyming verses. An imprecise rhyme is based on the consonance of one, or less often, two sounds.
Rhyme systems
Previously, in a school literature course, the basic methods of rhyming were necessarily studied in order to give knowledge about the variety of positions in a stanza of rhyming pairs (or more) of words, which should be a help to anyone who writes poetry at least once in their life. But everything is forgotten, and the majority of authors are somehow in no hurry to diversify their stanzas.
Adjacent - rhyming of adjacent verses: the first with the second, the third with the fourth (aabb) (the same letters indicate the endings of verses that rhyme with each other).
This is the most common and obvious rhyming system. This method can be used even by children in kindergarten and has an advantage in the selection of rhymes (the associative pair appears in the mind immediately, it is not clogged with intermediate lines). Such stanzas have greater dynamics and a faster reading pace.
The scarlet light of dawn was woven on the lake,
On the forest, wood grouse are crying with ringing sounds.
An oriole is crying somewhere, burying itself in a hollow.
Only I don’t cry - my soul is light.
The next method - cross rhyme - also appealed to a large number of the writing public.
Cross - rhyme of the first verse with the third, the second with the fourth (abab)
Although the scheme of such a rhyme seems to be a little more complicated, it is more flexible rhythmically and allows you to better convey the necessary mood. Yes, and such poems are easier to learn - the first pair of lines, as it were, pulls out of memory the second pair that rhymes with it (while with the previous method everything breaks up into separate couplets).
I love the storm in early May,
When the first thunder of spring
As if frolicking and playing,
Rumbling in the blue sky.
The third method - ring (in other sources - girded, enveloping) - already has less representation in the total mass of poems.
Ring (girdled, enveloping) - the first verse - with the fourth, and the second - with the third. (abba)
This scheme can be somewhat more difficult for beginners (the first line is, as it were, erased by the subsequent pair of rhyming lines).
I looked, standing over the Neva,
Like Isaac the Giant
In the darkness of the frosty fog
The golden dome glowed.
Finally, woven rhyme has many patterns. This is the general name for complex types of rhyming, for example: abvbv, abvvba, etc.
Far from the sun and nature,
Far from light and art,
Far from life and love
Your younger years will flash by
Living feelings die
Your dreams will be shattered.
In conclusion, it is useful to note that one should not always adhere so rigidly, strictly and dogmatically to certain canonical forms and templates, because, as in any form of art, there is always a place for the original in poetry. But, nevertheless, before rushing into the unbridled inventing of something new and not entirely known, it always does not hurt to make sure that you are still familiar with the basic canons.
Stanzas
Stanza - from Greek. strophe - revolution, circling. Such a complex rhythmic unit of poetic works as the stanza is based on the order of rhymes in poetry.
A stanza is a group of verses with a specific rhyme arrangement, usually repeated in other equal groups. In most cases, a stanza is a complete syntactic whole.
The most common types of stanzas in classical poetry of the past were: quatrains, octaves, terzas. The smallest of the stanzas is a couplet.
There are also stanzas:
Oneginskie
ballad
odic
limericks
Quatrains
Quatrain (quatrain) is the most common type of stanza, familiar to everyone from early childhood. Popular due to the abundance of rhyming systems.
Octaves
An octave is an eight-line stanza in which the first verse rhymes with the third and fifth, the second verse with the fourth and sixth, and the seventh verse with the eighth.
Octave scheme: abababvv
At six years old he was a very cute child
And even, as a child, he played pranks;
At twelve he looked sad
And although he was good, he was somehow frail.
Inessa said proudly,
That the method changed his nature:
A young philosopher, despite his years,
He was quiet and modest, as if by nature.
I must confess to you that I am still inclined
Don't trust Inessa's theories.
Her husband and I were friends;
I know, very complex excesses
An unsuccessful family is born
When the father is a rake in character,
And mommy is a prude. Not without reason
The son's inclinations take after his father!
Terzins
Tertsins (tercets) are three-line stanzas with a very original way of rhyming. In them, the first verse of the first stanza rhymes with the third, the second verse of the first stanza with the first and third of the second stanza, the second verse of the second stanza with the first and third of the third stanza, etc. The terzas ended with an additional verse that rhymed with the second verse of the last tercet.
Terza circuit:
Black magician
When the darkness thickens around
You're like a slave to destiny
You will draw an even circle with blood,
Cast aside your petty doubts.
You will enter it, forgetting about fear.
The darkness of the current will catch you.
Throw away the body - mortal dust.
You are with those who stepped into the darkness!
The lights in the eyes went out.
Where is your spirit, isn’t it in hell?
(Ganger Scouger Alkaryote)
Onegin stanza
The Onegin stanza is a fourteen-line stanza created by A.S. Pushkin in the lyric-epic poem "Eugene Onegin".
This stanza consists of three quatrains and a final couplet. In the first quatrain there is a cross rhyme (abab), in the second there is an adjacent rhyme (aabb), in the third there is a ring rhyme (abba), the last two verses rhyme with each other. The entire novel is written in such stanzas (with the exception of the letters of Tatiana and Onegin).
The theater is already full; the boxes shine;
The stalls and the chairs are all in full swing;
In paradise they splash impatiently,
And, rising, the curtain makes noise.
Brilliant, half-airy,
I obey the magic bow,
Surrounded by a crowd of nymphs,
Worth Istomin; she,
One foot touching the floor,
The other slowly circles,
And suddenly he jumps, and suddenly he flies,
Flies like fluff from the mouth of Aeolus;
Either the camp will sow, then it will develop
And with a quick foot he hits the leg.
Ballad stanza
A ballad stanza is a stanza in which the even and odd verses consist of a different number of feet. Used in ballads.
The most common stanzas are four even anapestic feet and three odd ones.
The Queen of Britain is seriously ill
Her days and nights are numbered.
And she asks to call confessors
From my native, French country.
But for now you will bring priests from Paris,
The queen will end...
And the king sends twelve nobles
The Lord Marshal is to be summoned to the palace.
Odic stanza
Odic stanza - a stanza of ten verses rhyming according to the ababvvgddg scheme, used in the genre of a solemn ode.
O you who await
Fatherland from its depths
And he wants to see them,
Which ones are calling from foreign countries,
Oh, your days are blessed!
Be of good cheer now
It’s your kindness to show
What can Platonov's own
And the quick-witted Newtons
Russian land gives birth.
Sonnets
The sonnet is available in Italian and English.
An Italian sonnet is a fourteen-line poem divided into two quatrains and two final tercets. In quatrains, either cross or ring rhyme is used, and it is the same for both quatrains. The order of alternation of rhymes in tercets is different.
The rhyme scheme in Italian sonnets might, for example, be like this:
GBG or Abba
The example uses the third scheme - try to define it yourself:
Poet! do not value people's love,
There will be a momentary noise of enthusiastic praise;
You will hear the judgment of a fool and the laughter of a cold crowd,
But you remain firm, calm and gloomy.
You are the king: live alone. On the road to freedom
Go where your free mind takes you,
Improving the fruits of your favorite thoughts,
Without demanding rewards for a noble deed.
They are in you. You are your own highest court;
You know how to evaluate your work more strictly than anyone else.
Are you satisfied with it, discerning artist?
Satisfied? So let the crowd scold him
And spits on the altar, where your fire burns,
And your tripod shakes in childish playfulness.
English sonnet - fourteen lines divided into three quatrains and one couplet.
My mistress" eyes are nothing like the sun;
Coral is far more red than her lips" red,
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.
I have seen roses damask"d red and white
But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
And in some perfumes there is more delight
Than in that from my mistress reeks.
I love to hear her speak, yet well I know,
That music hath a far more pleasing sound;
I grant I never saw a goddess go;
My mistress, when she walks; threads on the ground.
And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare
As any she belied with false compare.
Limericks
Limericks (limriks) are pentaverses written in anapest. The rhyme scheme is aabba, the first and last rhymes are usually repeated. The third and fourth lines consist of fewer feet.
Limericks became widely known thanks to Edward Lear (1812-1888), who published several books of nonsense poetry. Puns and neologisms were widely used in the poems.
The example shows limericks translated by M. Freidkin.
Naughty granddaughter from Jena
Grandma was going to burn it like a log.
But she noticed subtly:
“Shouldn’t we burn the kitten?”
Impossible granddaughter from Jena.
To the daring flute player from the Congo
Once an anaconda crawled into my boot.
But it's so disgusting
He played that back
An hour later the anaconda crawled away.
Warm-blooded old man from near Kobo
Suffered extremely from chills
And rest in peace,
And a sheepskin coat with fur
He wore it to escape the chill.
Varieties of Poems
Acrostic
The term acrostic hides a rather rare, but very interesting and beloved type of poem by many. The first letters of all lines in it form some word or phrase, thus allowing you to encrypt the message or give a new meaning. Writing such poetry requires a fair amount of skill and not everyone succeeds. It is somewhat reminiscent of burim and can be used as a wonderful game or poetry practice.
Azure day
Faded, faded.
Night Shadow
Oh! Hid us.
Two more varieties of such poetic creativity should be separately mentioned: mesostic (the words are formed by letters in the middle of each line) and telestic (where final letters are used).
As an example of one of the varieties of acrostic - the so-called alphabetic acrostic - where the first letters of the lines make up the entire alphabet (without й,ь,ъ,ы), and televerse, we will give two works by one of our authors.
Absolutely deserted area
Nameless dark rocks...
The surrounding area is covered in eternal shadow,
Where are the moss-covered passes?
Yes, the valleys have breath,
Its sound is slightly diffused in the air...
Life is empty suffering without death,
Behind suffering, immortality beckons...
And not a line or a word is heard,
The beauty of emptiness is enticing
As soon as it attracts, it will throw away, and again
He quietly calls me to him.
But in the desert I feel movement,
Lonely but difficult
Silent circling through the valley,
The joy of growing something different.
The sun is shining especially brightly
So solemn, so inspired...
A violet grows near the mountain -
Purple Queen.
Cold or warm - no difference,
The color is not important, the joy of growth is more important,
What comes in a million guises...
Taking a step forward is very difficult:
An invisible shield - like a stone in a fence.
Eh, maybe all this is in vain?
The brisk wind stroked the violet -
I saw she was so beautiful...
(Clear Dawn)
Oh people! This is not a trifle at all:
Unhurried, even stately,
Paper caravans
It carries, even though it’s not the water in it, but poison,
Natural laws have corrected everything,
An ordinary stinking ditch
(Clear Dawn)
Free verse
How to answer the question: how does poetic speech differ from prosaic speech? Most sources agree that poetic speech is measured, having a special rhythmic organization that allows it to be distinguished from any other. As you can see, nothing is said here about rhyme as an obligatory element. That is why we find many examples of poems that seem not to fully comply with the systems and rules discussed in this manual. These are what we will talk about in the coming sections.
For all their flexibility, poetic meters cannot always satisfy the author, who is trying to convey some specific features of simple colloquial speech - he is constrained by the need to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables and maintain the number of feet. But it was probably necessary to say “fettered,” because there is such a thing as free verse. The peculiarity of such a verse is that stanzas, as such, may be absent; all lines consist of an arbitrary number of feet. Let's look at an example:
Let me... see... first
Flowery meadow; and I was looking
Some, I don’t remember in reality
In this example, the first two lines are four-foot, the third is one-foot, and the last one has five feet. It was this structure that helped the author express: 1, 2 - reflection, 3 - remembering, 4 - explanation. And this is all in four lines and, mind you, in compliance with rhyme. Rhyme, by the way, is required in free verse (you know, it’s not that free). And in perception, such a verse can often win when compared with an ordinary one. Another example is Boris Zakhoder, an excerpt from “The Song of Toys” (“Funny Pictures”, N5 1986):
Children love toys.
That's what everyone says!
Well, what about toys?
Don't like guys?
They love it very much!
They dote on souls!
That NOT EVERYONE notices this!..
Free verse is also very often found in fables (“God once sent a piece of cheese to the crow, etc.”)
Mixed verse
Free verse has one special variety - mixed verse, which differs in that it alternates lines of different sizes:
For a long time there has been little joy in love:
Sighs without response, tears without joy;
What was sweet has become bitter,
Roses fell, dreams dissipated...
In this example, iambic tetrameter lines alternate with amphibrachic tetrameter lines. But since one size is two-syllable, and the second is three-syllable, the total number of feet varies.
Vers libre
When free verse was no longer enough for the master to fully express himself in words, it turned out that there were still unused degrees of freedom - after all, it was possible to completely break with all the rules of traditional systems of versification. And the verse broke free. He rejected meter, ordered pauses, rhyme, refused division into stanzas - he became truly free (French vers libre) - free verse. In such a verse, the rhythm (which is created by the repetition of some homogeneous elements) is sometimes very difficult to discern. And how could it be otherwise if the only rhythm-forming element in it is the division of speech into verses and interline pauses separating them. That is, it is based on a homogeneous syntactic organization with which each of the poetic lines-phrases of free verse is pronounced. Only this repeated intonation determines the unique rhythm of the poem. As an example, we can cite Russian translations of modern Anglo-American (and other foreign) authors.
I dreamed of a city that could not be overcome, even if
all the countries of the universe attacked him,
It seemed to me that this was a city of Friends like never before
never happened.
And above all in this city, strong love was valued,
And every hour it was reflected in every action of the inhabitants
of this city.
In their every word and look.
(Walt Whitman, translation by K. Chukovsky)
In foreign language poetry, in general, there are slightly different criteria for the approach to creating a work, which may depend on each specific language (if this does not apply to solid forms: sonnets, etc.), because any language has a unique intonation structure, the repetition of which in another will not be successful . By the way, in English literature there can be an ancient type of poem, completely exotic for us, although somewhat similar to free verse (which is what gave it a second life). The rhythm-forming element in it is the threefold repetition in each line of one consonant sound, and if in the first line there was: sound-median caesura-sound-sound, then it will be so in each subsequent one, without rearrangements (although the sounds may be different). The ancient Irish epic Beowulf and a number of other written monuments were written in this verse.
Blank verse
Another type of verse that departed (albeit to a lesser extent) from the canons of versification was blank verse. It is more pleasant to the ear than free verse, because a mere trifle is discarded in it - rhyme. The metrical organization has remained unchanged - when reading one-meter verses with and without rhyme, there is no discomfort from the transition. Many legends and author's stylizations of them are written in blank verse. For illustration, a short excerpt from a fairy tale by Gennady Apanovich is given:
The morning has come red
Somewhere in the middle of March,
And along the path in the middle of the forest
The good fellow is coming.
He went to distant lands,
Seen a lot of divas
And now he’s in a hurry to get home
In ten whole years.
The nightingale sings a song,
The cuckoo keeps count of the years,
Well, all the thoughts are Eremy
They fly to their native room...
Poems in prose
Towards the end, let's look at the intermediate artistic form between free verse and prose - prose poetry. This work is poetic in content and prosaic in form (at the beginning of the 20th century it was clearly classified as poetry). As a rule, prose poetry has a meter. Now such poems have become somewhat forgotten, but M.Yu. Lermontov wrote:
“Blue mountains of the Caucasus, I greet you! You cherished my childhood; you carried me on your wild ridges, dressed me in clouds, you accustomed me to the sky, and from that time on I have been dreaming about you and about the sky. Thrones of nature, from which smoke flies away, thunder clouds, whoever once prayed to the creator only on your heights despises life, although at that moment he was proud of it!..”
Requirements for a writer's style
This section is constructed on the basis of quotes and excerpts from the book: Training Course in the Theory of Literature for Secondary Educational Institutions, comp. N. Livanov: ed. eighth, St. Petersburg, 1910
Our readers will be able to determine for themselves how much their views and opinions on the elements of fine literature have advanced over the past 90 years.
The syllable of each writer, regardless of the form of speech (prose or poetic) and the talent of the writer, must be different:
1) correctness; 2) clarity; 3) accuracy and 4) cleanliness.
Correct speech
Speech that agrees with the laws of the native language and the rules of grammar is called correct. Frequent violation of grammar rules in speech is called illiteracy. Syntactic errors (in combinations of words) in stylistics are given the name solecisms. Solecisms are allowed mainly due to ignorance of the laws of the native language. Very often, for example, errors are made against the rules for reducing subordinate clauses (for example: when I entered the room, I wanted to sit down).
Although I am not a prophet,
But seeing a moth hovering around a candle,
I almost always succeed in prophecy
That my moth will burn its wings.
Solecisms often creep into speech when translating from foreign languages. In these cases, solecisms are given special names, depending on the language from which the phrase is taken: Gallicism - a phrase in the French language (to make one’s fortune); Germanism - German (it looks good); Latinism - Latin (state, glorified by great historians), etc.
Note. Solecism is a random name: the Greeks who lived in the city of Soli, an Athenian colony, as a result of constant communication with the natives, used phrases in different languages.
Clarity of speech
Speech that the reader easily understands and does not arouse any confusion in him is called clear. To express thoughts clearly, you need to have a completely clear understanding of the subject. In particular, the use of so-called ambiguous expressions harms the clarity of speech. The ambiguity of expressions may depend on:
a) from the same endings of the subject and direct object. For example: the cargo sank the ship (how to understand: the cargo sank the ship, or the ship sank the cargo for other reasons? Or: a mother loves her daughter. Who loves whom?)
b) The ambiguity of the expression may be due to the omission of a punctuation mark: “one heir was bequeathed to erect a statue of a golden lance holding.” Without a comma, the expression is ambiguous; By placing a sign in front of the word gold or spade, the meaning of the expression is determined.
c) Ambiguity of an expression is easily conveyed by the use of homonyms, i.e. words denoting several completely different concepts. For example: “to heat” means to heat in water and to heat the stove; to lead - to show the way and to deceive. There are many such words in the language (braid, nose, key, pen and friend). Expressions taken individually: he tricked me cleverly, he ordered to sink the ship - are ambiguous and unclear.
d) Unclear speech often depends on the incorrect arrangement of words in sentences. Eg:
And he bequeathed, dying,
To be moved to the south
His yearning bones
And the death of a land alien to this land
Restless guests.
They fed him the meat of their dogs (either they fed him the meat of dogs, or the dogs fed him meat). The position of the leader of an army who has lost his courage is difficult (who has lost his courage: the leader or the army?).
e) Finally, expressing thoughts in long periods with many subordinate explanatory clauses is detrimental to clarity.
Synonyms
Synonyms. There are many words in a language that express similar, but not the same, concepts. These words are called synonymous. There are many synonymous words in the language. For example: ancient and dilapidated, joy and delight, fear and horror, way and road, look and see, etc. and so on. To avoid inaccuracy when using synonymous words, you need to think about the meaning of each word.
Goals: introduce students to the concepts of rhyme and stanza; learn to distinguish between paired, cross and ring rhymes; develop the skill of analyzing a poem; cultivate love for native nature through working with poetic text.
Equipment: cards with excerpts of poems (Appendix 1 from the author), presentation (Appendix 2 from the author).
During the classes
I. Organizational moment.
II. Setting a learning task.
Set goals based on the topic of today's lesson.
III. Updating knowledge.
– Let’s remember how poetic speech differs from prose speech? ( Poetic speech is rhythmic, melodious, rhymed.)
– What is rhythm? ( Rhythm is a uniform alternation of repeating units. In a poem these are stressed and unstressed syllables.)
– How is rhyme created? ( Rhyme - consonance of the endings of poetic lines.)
– Come up with your own or select examples of rhyming lines.
IV. Work on the topic
1. Introduction to the concept of rhyme and its types.
Rhyme - consonances at the end of poetic lines.
Rhyme can be cross, paired and ring (or encircling).
Cross rhyme pattern:
The fragrant branches of bird cherry bend,
All the wild apple trees are in bloom;
Inhaling their scent, Canute thinks:
“It’s a pleasure to live in God’s light!” (A.K. Tolstoy)
Scheme: a b a b
I came to you with greetings,
Tell me that the sun has risen
What is it with hot light
The sheets began to flutter... (A.A. Fet)
Sample paired (adjacent) rhyme:
To me, my baby; in my oak grove
You will recognize my beautiful daughters:
When it's month they will play and fly,
Playing, flying, putting you to sleep. (V.A. Zhukovsky)
Scheme: a a b b
Sample of a ring (encircling, enveloping) rhyme:
Mother Nature! I'm coming to you
With my deep melancholy;
To you with a tired head
I’ll fall on the womb crying. (A. Pleshcheev)
Scheme: a b b a
2. Development of the ability to identify types of rhyme.
Cross
Now the dew has fallen invisibly,
And the east is preparing to burn;
(Konstantin Sluchevsky)
Ring
Have you ever been to Wonderland?
In the wilderness of earthly imprisonment
Lives the exile of heaven?
(D.V. Davydov)
Steam room
In front of your menagerie,
King Francis was seated;
Behind the king, enchanting
Blooming beauty look,
(F. Schiller)
3. Male, female and other rhymes.
Masculine - with emphasis on the last syllable (window - long ago).
Feminine rhymes - with stress on the second syllable from the end of the line (da "rum - fire" rum).
Dactylic - with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line (spreads - spills).
Hyperdactylic - with stress on the fourth and subsequent syllables from the end (hanging - mixing).
Find examples of masculine, feminine, dactylic rhymes in the texts.
4. Rhymes are accurate and inaccurate.
In an exact rhyme, the repeated sounds are the same (color - light), but in an inaccurate rhyme the sounds do not match (story - melancholy).
5. Determine the meaning of the rhyme.
Re-read the fourth stanza in the ballad “The Glove” and determine its type of rhyme. Do rhymes help convey the climax of events?
6. Analysis of the structure of poems.
– Why do you think these poems are divided into parts this way?
Swamps and swamps,
Blue board of heaven.
Coniferous gilding
The forest rings.Tit shading
Between the forest curls,
Dark spruce trees dream
The hubbub of mowers.Through the meadow with a creak
The convoy is stretching -
Dry linden
The wheels smell.The willows are listening
Wind whistle...
You are my forgotten land,
You are my native land!..
(S.A. Yesenin) (Quatrain)Quiet in the juniper grove along the cliff
Above the river bank cover
(S.A. Yesenin) (couple)
- Octave - octave
- Terzina - tercet with the obligatory rhyme aba bvb vgv
- Quatrain - quatrain
- Couplet –
7. Introduction to the concept of stanza.
Stanza- a group of poetic lines, united by content and interconnected by a certain rhyme, rhythm, and intonation.
V. Summing up the lesson.
“Everything is dying, everything is dying!
You are black and naked
He was swaddled by mighty dreams,
And the strength for a new spring matures in him. (A. Maikov)
– Determine the type of rhyme in poetic passages.
Now the dew has fallen invisibly,
And the east is preparing to burn;
All the greenery seemed to have risen
See how the night goes by.
(Konstantin Sluchevsky)* * *
Have you ever been to Wonderland?
Where, a victim of a terrible command,
In the wilderness of earthly imprisonment
Lives the exile of heaven?
(D.V. Davydov)* * *
In front of your menagerie,
With the barons, with the crown prince,
King Francis was seated;
From a high balcony he looked
In the field, awaiting battle;
Behind the king, enchanting
Blooming beauty look,
There was a magnificent row of court ladies.
(F. Schiller)
– Read the poems expressively.
– How many parts is each of them divided into?
– Why do you think these poems are divided into parts this way?
Quiet in the juniper grove along the cliff
Autumn - a red mare - scratches her mane.Above the river bank cover
The blue clang of her horseshoes can be heard.The schema-monk-wind steps cautiously
Crumples leaves along road ledgesAnd kisses on the rowan bush.
Red ulcers for the invisible Christ.
(S.A. Yesenin)Swamps and swamps,
Blue board of heaven.
Coniferous gilding
The forest rings.
Tit shading
Between the forest curls,
Dark spruce trees dream
The hubbub of mowers.
Through the meadow with a creak
The convoy is stretching -
Dry linden
The wheels smell.
The willows are listening
Wind whistle...
You are my forgotten land,
You are my native land!..
(S.A. Yesenin)
– Analyze the poem in terms of rhyme and stanza.
Autumn leaves are circling in the wind,
Autumn leaves cry out in alarm:
“Everything is dying, everything is dying!
You are black and naked
O our dear forest, your end has come!Their royal forest does not hear the alarm.
Under the dark azure of harsh skies
He was swaddled by mighty dreams,
And the strength for a new spring matures in him.
(A. Maikov)
It is necessary to differentiate the concepts of rhyme and rhyme. If the first is the consonance of the endings of two words, then the second represents the order of alternation of rhymes in the verse. Accordingly, rhyme is a broader concept than rhyme.
Types of rhymes
In versification they rely on several types of rhymes. Thus, according to the quality and quantity of matches of syllables, rhymes are usually divided into accurate and inaccurate. According to the specificity of the stress - masculine (stress on the last feminine sound (stress on the penultimate vowel sound), dactylic and hyperdactylic (stress on the 3rd and 4th vowel sound from the end). If the lines, in addition to the vowel, coincide in the pre-stress (support) then such a rhyme is defined as rich. If this is not the case, the rhyme is called poor.
Types of rhyme
There are three main types of rhyming in versification:
- adjacent (pair room),
- cross (alternating),
- ring (encircling, enveloping).
Free rhyming is also a separate type.
The adjacent (paired) type implies alternate consonance of adjacent lines - the first line rhymes with the second, the third, respectively, with the fourth, the fifth with the sixth, etc. All types of rhyme in a poem can be conventionally designated in the form of a diagram. Thus, an adjacent species is designated as “aabb”. Example:
“Only there is no rubbish these days (a) -
The light(s) are made differently.
And the harmonica sings (b),
That the freemen disappeared (b).”
(S. A. Yesenin).
A special case of adjacent rhyme is the alternation of rhymes according to the “aaaa” pattern.
Cross (alternating) rhyme is formed by alternating rhyming lines - the first rhymes with the third, the second with the fourth, the fifth with the seventh, etc. rhyming "abab":
“I remember a wonderful moment:
You appeared before me (b),
Like a fleeting vision(s),
Like a genius of pure beauty (b)"
(A.S. Pushkin).
The ring (encircling, enveloping) type of rhyme is built according to the “abba” scheme. Accordingly, the first and fourth lines, as well as the second and third, rhyme. This type of versification is less common than the previous two:
“We are not drunk, we seem to be sober (eh)
And, probably, we really are poets (b).
When, sprinkling strange sonnets (b),
We speak with time using “you” (a).
(I. A. Brodsky).
Free types of rhyme occur when there is no pattern in the alternation of rhymes:
“A horse thief was sneaking through the fence,
The grapes were covered in tan,
Sparrows pecked at the brushes (b),
The tank tops of the stuffed animals nodded (in),
But, interrupting the rustle of the grapes (b),
Some kind of rumble was tormenting” (c).
(B. L. Pasternak).
Accordingly, in this example, the types of rhyme are combined: the first and second lines are adjacent, and the third to sixth lines are cross.
Rhyme and whole stanza
A complete stanza implies the presence of at least one pair for each rhyme. This ensures the indivisibility of the overall body of a given stanza - it cannot be divided into smaller integral stanzas that have their own complete rhyme.
Depending on the number of rhymes forming a verse, the forms of monostich, distich, terzetto, quatrain, pentet, etc. are distinguished. Monostich cannot be a whole stanza, since one line does not rhyme with anything (even if it contains an internal rhyme). The distich is built according to the “aa” pattern, having, accordingly, one rhyme for the whole stanza. Also, the terzetto has one rhyme scheme - the “aaa” scheme. In this case, the terzetto cannot be divided, since with any division we get at least one monostych, which is not a whole stanza.
The quatrain includes such types of rhyme as ring rhyme ("abba") and cross rhyme ("abab"). In the case of adjacent rhyme (“aabb”), the verse is divided into two independent distichs, each of which will be an entire stanza. The pentet, in turn, combines six rhymes of an entire stanza.
Free and free verse
It is necessary to distinguish between the free form of rhyme and the free form of verse, since they are not the same thing. Free types of rhyme in a poem are formed by the so-called. free verse is a form of versification with changing types of rhyme. That is, the lines rhyme in different orders. Free verse (aka white), in principle, does not use rhyme:
“Listen!
After all, if the stars light up (b) -
So does anyone need this?
So someone wants them to be (d)?”
(V.V. Mayakovsky).
At the same time, free verse cannot be equated to prose according to the principle: since there is no rhyme, then how does it differ from, for example, an ordinary newspaper advertisement? One of the differences from prose is the tendency towards recitation, which distinguishes a poetic text from a prose text. This tendency is created due to the specific emotionality, the special mood of the poetic text, which does not accept monotonous reading. The second significant difference between free verse is its rhythm, which is formed due to a certain alignment of the number of syllables and stresses.
RHYME- consonance at the end of two or more words. Sound repetition at the end of a rhythmic unit:
My uncle made the most honest rules,
When, seriously, I couldn’t,
He forced himself to respect
And it’s better to invent | I couldn’t” (Pushkin).
In connection with the position of stress in a rhyming word, there are three kinds of rhyme:
Man's rhyme, where the stress is on the last syllable of the rhymed verse. These are the simplest rhymes: (I am mine, moYa is a pig, rAZ - kvass - bAS - us);
Women's rhyme, where the stress is on the penultimate syllable. They contain more sounds: VINA - PICTURE; PLANS - WOUNDS; STRANGE – hazy; flock - big, edge - playing;
Three syllable rhyme, dactylic, in which the stress is on the third syllable from the end. After the stressed vowel, two syllables follow (WORN - SEADS, STOCCHKA - BONE, TRAINS - DRUNKER).
There is also a division:
Pantorhythm- all words in a line and in the next one rhyme with each other (for example, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd words of two lines rhyme, respectively)
Through rhyme- runs through the entire work (for example - one rhyme in each line)
Echo rhyme- the second line consists of one word or short phrase rhymed with the first line.
Rhymes there are accurate and inaccurate.
IN precise enough rhyme match up:
a) last stressed vowel,
b) sounds starting from the last stressed vowel.
Exact rhyme A rhyme like “writes – hears – breathes” (Okudzhava) is also considered. Also classified as accurate are the so-called. iotized rhymes: “Tani – spells” (ASP), “again – the hilt” (Firnven).
An example of a stanza with exact rhymes (it’s the sounds that match, not the letters):
It's nice, squeezing the katana,
Turn the enemy into a vinaigrette.
Katana is a samurai's dream
But better than that is a pistol. (Gareth)
IN imprecise rhyme Not all sounds are the same, starting from the last stressed vowel: “towards - cutting”, or “book - King” in Medvedev. There can be much more imprecise rhymes than exact ones, and they can greatly decorate and diversify a verse.
Rhymes parts of speech
Verb - noun:
So many of them fell into this abyss,
I'll open up in the distance!
The day will come when I too will disappear
From the surface of the earth. (M. Tsvetaeva).
Verb - adverb:
You were everything. But because you
Now dead, my Bobo, you have become
Nothing - more precisely, a clot of emptiness.
Which is also, as you might think, a lot. (I. Brodsky)
Noun, adjective:
Like a conquistador in an iron shell,
I'm on the road and walking happily
Then resting in a joyful garden,
Then leaning toward abysses and abysses. (N. Gumilev)
Noun - adverb:
What are my friends, poets, making noise about?
In a restless house until late?
I hear an argument. And I see silhouettes
Against the dim background of a late window. (N. Rubtsov)
Noun - numeral:
You can't see the birds, but you can hear them.
The sniper, languishing with spiritual thirst,
Either an order, or a letter from his wife,
Sitting on a branch, reads twice... (I. Brodsky)
Noun - preposition:
Blue Saxon Forest.
Dreams of basalt relatives,
A world without a future, without -
Simply - tomorrow. (I. Brodsky)
Noun - conjunction:
There will be no other us! Neither
Here, not there, where everyone is equal.
That's why our days
In this place they are numbered.
Adjective - adverb:
You won't take my soul as I live,
Not falling like feathers.
Life, you often rhyme with: falsely, -
The singing ear is unmistakable!
Adjective - pronoun:
Adjective - numeral:
He is silent and unsociable,
Always alone, always alone...